American History - From Discovery To the 19th Century

The Europeans discovered the North & South Americas during the last decade of the 15^th Century. Very little was known about this New World before. Between 1492 and 1503 AD, Christopher Columbus discovered the West Indies, Central America, and northern South America for Spain. John Cabot was the first person to reach North America in 1497. It is estimated he discovered Newfoundland (Canada) for England. A Portuguese explorer, Pedro Alvares, discovered Brazil in 1500 AD. Modern-day United States of America (USA) was initially discovered by a Spanish explorer Juan Ponce in 1513 when he arrived in modern-day Florida.

This article covers the History of the United States of America (USA) rather than the continents of North & South America.

Period before Discovery

It is not exactly known when the Native Americans initially settled in the Americas and modern-day USA. However, it is estimated that they started arriving in the USA (including Alaska) about 30,000 years ago during the Ice Age from Siberia through a land bridge that connected Eurasia and America. This migration continued for the next 20,000 years, and it ended around 10,000 years ago when the land bridge disappeared due to a rise in sea water level. Now, the native Indians of America call themselves American Indians and are present mostly in the Western USA.

Colonial Period

As stated above, the Spanish reached Florida in 1513. They then quickly managed to control most of the southern USA. On the other hand, the Dutch formed their colony New Netherland (today’s New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, etc.) during the 17^th Century. The British seized it in the 1670s and established New England (northeastern USA). The French named their colony New France (the eastern USA and adjacent Canada).

After the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), France transferred New France to Britain and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain, while Britain gave Cuba to Spain.

Independence of USA

The British left their American colonies away from the crown after their capture during the 17^th and early 18^th centuries. They were largely sovereign and developed their own political systems different from the UK. But after the British victory against the French and Indians in 1763, the British government started to impose taxes on the Americans against their previous attitude. This sparked anger among Americans as they wanted to enjoy the previous sovereignty.

In 1773, the American demonstrators destroyed the entire shipment of tea by throwing it into Boston Harbor. This forced the British to end self-rule in the Massachusetts colony, and they took control by sending an army there. This was the beginning of the war as the "patriots" (American revolutionaries) in Massachusetts and other colonies prepared to fight. 

In 1775, all 13 British colonies started the war by driving British officials out of their colonies and sending their militiamen to besiege the British at Boston. Political leader George Washington was appointed commander of the newly formed Continental Army. Minorities in all the states supported the British and they were called "loyalists."

The Americans drove the British out of Boston in March 1776. However, their campaign in Quebec (Canada) failed and the British managed to take full control of it. The Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on the 4^th of July 1776. It is celebrated as ‘Independence Day’ in the USA. 

Major battles started after the American Declaration of Independence. During 1776-77, the British captured New York but the Americans were victorious in New Jersey after an initial defeat. Americans later also captured Upstate New York in 1777 during the Saratoga Campaign. This victory also helped them to get support from the French Empire. Later, they were also joined by the Netherlands and Spain. The British also failed during the Philadelphia Campaign (1777-78). 

After the failure in the North, the British tried to capture the southern colonies of Georgia, Virginia, N & S Carolina, and East Florida from 1775-82. They were met with strong resistance from the Americans and their ally France. The British finally lost this campaign in 1782 at Yorktown and practically it was the end of British rule in America. Through the Treaty of Paris (1783), the British accepted the independence of the USA. They received all land south of Canada and east of the Mississippi River except British Florida which was handed over to Spain. 

In 1789, the Continental Congress adopted the Constitution of the United States and replaced it with the Articles of Confederation (1777) which was an agreement between 13 founder states of the USA. This constitution strengthened the federal government with a monopoly on taxation and defense. It is also the current constitution of the United States. George Washington was selected as the first President of the USA under this constitution.

19^th Century

In 1803, the USA purchased Louisiana from France after paying $15 million for this region whose total area is 2,144,000 km². This area is west of the 13 states and includes modern 15 US states including all of Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma; most of North Dakota and South Dakota; and parts of Colorado, Minnesota, New Mexico, Texas, and Louisiana. 

In June 1812, the War of 1812 started between the UK and the USA that lasted till February 1815. Native Indian Americans were allies of the UK in this war and Britain tried to establish an Indian State in North America. The USA decisively defeated the Indians and killed their leader in the Battle of the Thames (1813). The land battles were fought in Eastern and Central North America, while naval battles were fought in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

In 1830, the Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. Through this act, the federal government forcibly moved southeastern Indian tribes to modern-day Oklahoma. Many people died and others suffered miserably due to this deportation, known as the Trail of Tears.

In the 19^th Century, there was a widely recognized belief in the USA that the American settlers would expand throughout the continent. It was known as Manifest Destiny. Under this belief, the United States tried to expand its rule westward which was the cause of the American-Mexican War (1846—48). Earlier raids of Indians had already caused political instability in Mexico, assisting the United States in winning the war relatively easily. Through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Feb 1848), Americans occupied large areas including today’s Texas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. The U.S. also paid $15 million to Mexico under the agreement. 

In April 1861, the American Civil War started between the Northern and Southern States. The Northern States were known as Union States while the 11 Southern States were named the Confederate States. The reason for the war was the difference between abolition and the continuation of slavery. The Northern States were against slavery while Southern States supported it. The South declared their secession from the USA and formed the Confederate States of America. However, the Union didn't recognize the secession and a deadly conflict started between the two opponents. The war continued for over four years, killing more than 700,000 soldiers from both sides and many civilians. It is the deadliest war in American history so far. In the end, the Union won the war in May 1865. It led to the dissolution of Confederate States and the end of slavery. Union President, Abraham Lincoln, was assassinated five days after the surrender of the Confederacy. During the reconstruction era (1863-77), the federal government gradually took control of the Confederate states in the Southern USA.

In April 1898, a war erupted between the Spanish Empire and the USA in the Caribbean and Asia-Pacific. Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were the location of this Spanish-American War. The war was fought against the Spanish rule in these areas where revolutionaries received assistance from the Americans. The Americans and their allies remained victorious in this war. Through the Treaty of Paris (August 1898), the Americans gained control over Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico and established a protectorate over Cuba. Defeat in this war was a major factor behind the collapse of the Spanish Empire. 

The American rule over the Philippines was not warmly welcomed and the revolutionaries in the Philippines started the Philippine-American War in June 1899. The war continued for over three years and ended in favor of the USA. Thousands of soldiers from both sides were killed and more than 200,000 civilians in the Philippines also lost their lives in this conflict. The war ended in July 1902 but the Moro Rebellion continued till 1913 in the Southern Philippines. The Americans were again victorious there.