Umayyad
Caliphate or Umayyad Dynasty was the
first Muslim dynasty that was formed after Rashidun
Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate lasted for around 90 years from 661 to 750
AD. This Caliphate was established after the end of the First Fitnah (First Muslim Civil War) and it barely recovered from Second Fitnah (Second Muslim Civil War)
at the beginning of the Caliphate.
The Umayyad
Caliphate is especially known for the expansion of conquered territories in
Asia, Europe, and Africa and the unity of the empire. Soon after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty, the unity of the Caliphate could not be retained by the Abbasid Dynasty
that replaced the Umayyad Caliphate.
Background
and Establishment
Umayyad or Banu
Umayya is a clan of Quresh
Tribe. A prominent figure of Banu Ummaya was the third Rashidun Caliph Usman bin Affan (RA) who was a
prominent sahabi (companion) and
son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
Many of the prominent members of the Umayyad clan embraced Islam after the conquest of Makkah by Muhammad (PBUH).
In 639,
second Caliph Umar bin Khattab (RA)
appointed Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan (RA) as
the governor of Syria and he retained his position during the caliphate of his
cousin Usman. Due to this reason, Syria became a stronghold of Muawiya and the
later Umayyads.
After the martyrdom of Usman, the first civil war started between Muslims during which
Muawiya fought against the forces of the fourth caliph Ali (RA) at the Battle of
Siffin. The battle remained indecisive. Later, Muawiya’s commander Amr ibn al-As (RA) took Egypt from Ali
while taking advantage of the Battle of
Nahrawan that took place between Ali and his former allies, the Kharijites.
In 661 AD,
Ali was martyred by a khawariji and he was replaced by his son Hassan bin Ali
(RA) as the new Caliph. Hassan started peace negotiations with Muawiya and they
reached a deal. Under this deal, Muawiya became the Caliph of all Muslims in
661 AD and it marks the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate.
List of
Umayyad Rulers
Following
is the list of rulers during the Umayyad Caliphate and important events that
took place during their reigns.
Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan
Muawiya ibn
Abu Sufyan, also known as Muawiya I, became the sole rule of the Islamic Caliphate
in 661 after signing a peace agreement with Hasan bin Ali. He transferred the
capital and treasury from Iraq (Kufa) to Syria (Damascus). He largely
maintained good relations with different Arabian tribes throughout his reign and
appointed faithful and capable governors that ensured internal peace and prosperity.
The
Caliphate was already controlling the Arabian peninsula along with the Levant, Egypt, and Iran. He continued the land and naval raids against Byzantine Empire that were halted during First Fitna. He managed to conquer central North Africa from
Byzantines and also a few parts of Sistan (eastern Iran).
His most
controversial decision was the appointment of his son, Yazid ibn Muawiya, as his
successor. This caused the beginning of Second Fitnah (or Second Civil
War). He remained caliph for 19 years (661 to 680).
Yazid ibn Muawiya
The era
(680-683) of Yazid ibn Muawiya was plagued with internal strife. His
appointment was categorically rejected by two prominent companions, Abdullah
ibn Zubayr and Hussain ibn Ali (grandson of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)). He
initially tried to take oath from Hussain ibn Ali forcibly which resulted in
Hussain’s martyrdom in a small but deadly Battle of Karbala. Abdullah ibn
Zubayr was accompanied by people from Hejaz. Yazid died while in process of
taking the area back from ibn Zubayr.
Muawiya ibn Yazid
Muawiya bin
Yazid, also known as Muawiya II, was the last Umayyad ruler of the Sufiyani clan.
He ruled for just 6 months before his death. He tried to negotiate with
Abdullah ibn Zubayr to settle the differences peacefully but remained
unsuccessful till his death.
Abdul Malik ibn Marwan
The sudden
death of Muawiya II weakened the Umayyad grip over authority as there was no
legitimate heir of Umayyad left. In these circumstances, Marwan bin al-Hakam, a
prominent Umayyad, initially tried to deal with Abdullah bin Zubayr. But upon
Abdullah’s refusal, Marwan declared himself to be the leader of Umayyad. But he
and his son Abdul Malik had to fight a multi-sided civil war against the two
other contenders of the Caliphate; Abdullah ibn Zubair and Mukhtar Thaqfi (a
Shiite). This civil war ended in 692 and Abdul Malik bin Marwan became the
ruler of the entire caliphate.
He proved
to be a capable ruler and managed to bring down rebellions in all parts of the caliphate. He recommenced Muslim raids against the Byzantine Empire and Central
Asia. This resulted in recapturing of central North Africa (Ifriqiya) and Armenia
along with strengthening fronts in Central Asia.
Other
important events that took place during his reign were: construction of the Dome
of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah), the Arabization
of the bureaucracy, and the establishment of Islamic currency. He appointed his
capable son, Walid I, as his successor who continued his conquests with renewed
zeal and fervor.
Walid ibn Abdul Malik
The reign
of Walid bin Abdul Malik (Walid ibn Abd
al-Malik), or Walid I, is recognized as the greatest period of the Umayyad
Caliphate and one of the greatest in Islamic history. During these ten years (705-715), Muslim armies achieved substantial victories on both eastern
and western fronts. Sind, in South Asia, and a large part of Transoxiana (Central
Asia), came under the direct rule of the Caliphate of Walid I. On the western
front, his commanders conquered Maghrib (western North Africa) before toppling
the Visigoth kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula.
Walid’s era
has witnessed several other achievements. He used the treasure acquired through
conquests on social welfare projects and the construction of mosques. Walid
constructed Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and completed Al-Aqsa Mosque in
Jerusalem. He also expanded several mosques in Hejaz including the Prophet’s
(PBUH) Mosque in Madinah.
Sulayman ibn Abdul Malik
Sulayman
was the brother of Walid I who became the Umayyad ruler in 715 after Walid’s
death. He ruled for just over 2 years. He is known for dismissing most of the
governors and military commanders installed by Walid I. He also punished a few of
these governors and generals as they disagreed with the appointment of Sulayman as
Caliph during Walid I’s life. A notable example is the torture and death of the conqueror of Sind and Hajjaj’s nephew Muhammad bin Qasim. All these measures
halted the pace of conquests during Walid’s era.
But he
continued his raids against Byzantine and at other fronts. He conquered the
area south of the Caspian Sea that remained out of reach for former caliphs despite
their annexation of large territories. He also conquered few eastern parts of the Byzantine Empire but his efforts to siege Constantinople failed in 717 and 718.
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz
Umar ibn
Abdul Aziz was the son of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan’s brother Abdul Aziz. His
reign was also short-lived (717-720) but he is renowned for his simple and
religious lifestyle.
Instead of
conquering new areas, he made efforts to spread Islam in the already conquered
areas and also to foreign nations. Most of the people in Iran and Egypt
embraced Islam during his Caliphate. He also invited rulers of China and Tibet
to accept Islam. The official collection of Hadith (sayings of Holy Prophet
(PBUH)) was also initiated during his era.
He lifted
the largely unsuccessful Siege of Constantinople in 718 and halted the unnecessary
campaign in Central Asia. But many areas in Spain were conquered during his rule.
He also suppressed the revolt of Kharijites in Iraq successfully.
He
abolished drinking, implemented a dress code, and expanded the social welfare
programs of his predecessors. He terminated unlawful and unethical favors for government
officials and urged them to listen and resolve public complaints. These and
other reforms made him an exemplary caliph in the Umayyad dynasty.
Yazid ibn Abdul Malik
Yazid ibn
Abdul Malik (also known as Yazid II) ruled the Umayyad Caliphate from 620 to
624 AD. He is known for the construction of a large number of desert palaces in
today’s Jordan and other parts of Bilad al-Sham.
He faced a revolt from former Umayyad governor Yazid ibn al-Muhallab and his Yamani tribe.
He suppressed the revolt mercilessly. But this generated the feeling of hatred
among the Yemeni faction and they turned towards the Abbasids during their successful revolt
against Umayyad in their last years. An important military event during his era
was the capture of Balanjar, the capital of Khazar Khaganate in the North Caucasus.
He reimposed tax on non-Arab Muslims that was previously abandoned by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to support non-Arabs to accept Islam. He also issued a controversial Iconoclastic
Edict of removing all icons from Christian Churches within the Caliphate.
Hisham ibn Abdul Malik
Hisham was
the last of the 4 Caliph sons of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan. His 19 years of rule
(724-743) strengthened the grip of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Hisham was
religiously conservative and he reintroduced Shariah-based measures taken by
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz. He also facilitated education by building new schools and translating
scientific and literary masterpieces into the Arabic language.
He successfully
suppressed revolts by Kharijites (in The Maghrib) and Zayd ibn Ali (in Kufa). He
was also able to resolve internal conflicts in Spain and continued the advances
of Muslims. These advances were halted by defeat in the Battle of Tours in 732
which marked the limit of Muslim conquest in the Iberian Peninsula.
Hisham faced
few setbacks in the Caucasus and Central Asia but was able to reassert his control
over Sind by defeating the Hindu rebellion. He also conquered few areas from the
Byzantine Empire.
Third Fitna
Hisham proved
to be the last capable Umayyad ruler. His successor, Walid II, was more inclined
towards worldly pleasures and incompetent. He was assassinated by Yazid ibn
Walid I and he became Caliph. But he died just after 6 months and appointed his
brother Ibrahim as his successor. But his succession was rejected by Marwan ibn
Muhammad (nephew of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan).
Marwan took
the throne in 744 without bloodshed. He faced rebellions from Kharijite and Abbasids
in Iran and Iraq, Coptic Christians in Egypt, and even internal confrontation within
Umayyad stronghold Syria. He managed to defeat Kharijite and internal
rebellions. But opposition from Abbasids proved disastrous. Marwan was defeated
in the final Battle of Zab and later assassinated in Egypt. This marked the end
of the Umayyad Caliphate.
This followed the large-scale assassination of Umayyad princes and other nobles related to the Umayyad dynasty. But an able prince, Abdul Rahman I, managed to escape towards
Hispania and founded the Emirate of Cordoba in 756.