Umayyad Caliphate - A Synopsis

Umayyad Caliphate, or Umayyad Dynasty, was the first Muslim dynasty formed after Rashidun Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate lasted around 90 years, from 661 to 750 AD. It was established after the end of the First Fitnah (First Muslim Civil War) and barely recovered from Second Fitnah (Second Muslim Civil War) at the beginning of their rule.

The Umayyad Caliphate is known for the expansion of conquered territories in Asia, Europe, and Africa and the unity of the empire. Soon after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty, the new Caliphate of the Abbasid Dynasty failed to retain its unification.

Background and Establishment

Umayyad or Banu Umayya is a clan of Quresh Tribe. A prominent figure of Banu Ummaya was the third Rashidun Caliph Usman bin Affan (RA), a prominent sahabi (companion) and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Many prominent members of the Umayyad clan embraced Islam after the conquest of Makkah by Muhammad (PBUH).

In 639, the second Caliph Umar bin Khattab (RA) appointed Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan (RA) as the governor of Syria, who retained his position during the Caliphate of his cousin Usman. Due to this reason, Syria became a stronghold of Muawiya and the later Umayyads.

After the martyrdom of Usman, the first civil war started between Muslims. During this period, Muawiya fought against the forces of the fourth Caliph Ali (RA) at the Battle of Siffin. The battle remained indecisive. Later, Muawiya’s commander Amr ibn al-As (RA) took Egypt from Ali while taking advantage of the Battle of Nahrawan between Ali and his former allies, the Kharijites.

In 661 AD, a khawariji martyred Ali, and his son Hassan bin Ali (RA) became the new Caliph. Hassan started peace negotiations with Muawiya, and they reached a deal. Under this deal, Muawiya became the Caliph of all Muslims in 661 AD. It marks the beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate.

List of Umayyad Rulers

Following is the list of rulers of the Umayyad Caliphate and important events that took place during their reigns.

Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan

Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan, also known as Muawiya I, became the sole ruler of the Islamic Caliphate in 661 after signing a peace agreement with Hasan bin Ali. He transferred the capital and treasury from Iraq (Kufa) to Syria (Damascus). He maintained good relations with different Arabian tribes throughout his reign and appointed faithful and capable governors, which ensured internal peace and prosperity.

The Caliphate was already controlling the Arabian peninsula along with the Levant, Egypt, and Iran. He continued the land and naval raids against Byzantine Empire that halted during First Fitna. He managed to conquer central North Africa from the Byzantines and a few parts of Sistan (eastern Iran).

His most controversial decision was appointing his son, Yazid ibn Muawiya, as his successor. It caused the beginning of the Second Fitnah (or the Second Civil War). He remained Caliph for 19 years (661 to 680).

Yazid ibn Muawiya

The era (680-683) of Yazid ibn Muawiya was full of internal strife. Two prominent companions, Abdullah ibn Zubayr and Hussain ibn Ali (grandson of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)), categorically rejected his appointment. He initially tried to take oath from Hussain ibn Ali forcibly, which resulted in Hussain’s martyrdom in a small but deadly Battle of Karbala. Abdullah ibn Zubayr was in control of Hejaz. Yazid died while trying to take this area back from ibn Zubayr.

Muawiya ibn Yazid

Muawiya bin Yazid, also known as Muawiya II, was the last Umayyad ruler of the Sufiyani clan. He ruled for just six months before his death. He tried to negotiate with Abdullah ibn Zubayr to settle the differences peacefully but remained unsuccessful till his death.

Abdul Malik ibn Marwan

The sudden death of Muawiya II weakened the Umayyad's grip over authority due to the absence of any legitimate heir of the Umayyad. In these circumstances, Marwan bin al-Hakam, a prominent Umayyad, initially tried to deal with Abdullah bin Zubayr. But upon Abdullah’s refusal, Marwan declared himself the leader of Umayyad. But he and his son Abdul Malik had to fight a multi-sided civil war against the two other contenders of the Caliphate: Abdullah ibn Zubair and Mukhtar Thaqfi (a Shiite). This civil war ended in 692, and Abdul Malik bin Marwan became the ruler of the entire Caliphate.

He proved a capable ruler and suppressed rebellions in all parts of the Caliphate. He recommenced Muslim raids against the Byzantine Empire and Central Asia. It resulted in recapturing of central North Africa (Ifriqiya) and Armenia, along with strengthening fronts in Central Asia.

Other important events during his reign were the construction of the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah), the Arabization of the bureaucracy, and the establishment of Islamic currency. He appointed his capable son, Walid I, his successor, who continued his conquests with renewed zeal.

Walid ibn Abdul Malik

The reign of Walid bin Abdul Malik (Walid ibn Abd al-Malik), or Walid I, is recognized as the greatest period of the Umayyad Caliphate and one of the greatest in Islamic history. During these ten years (705-715), Muslim armies achieved substantial victories on both eastern and western fronts. Sind in South Asia, and a large part of Transoxiana (Central Asia), came under the direct rule of the Caliphate of Walid I. His commanders n the western front conquered Maghrib (western North Africa) before toppling the Visigoth kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. 

Walid I used treasure on welfare projects and construction of Mosques

Walid’s era has witnessed several other achievements. He used the treasure from conquests on social welfare projects and the construction of mosques. Walid constructed Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and completed Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. He also expanded several mosques in Hejaz, including the Prophet’s (PBUH) Mosque in Madinah.

Sulayman ibn Abdul Malik

Sulayman was the brother of Walid I and became the Umayyad ruler in 715 after Walid’s death. He ruled for just over two years. He is known for dismissing most of the governors and military commanders installed by Walid I. He also punished a few of these governors and generals because they disagreed with the appointment of Sulayman as Caliph during Walid I’s life. A notable example is the torture and death of the conqueror of Sind and Hajjaj’s nephew Muhammad bin Qasim. All these measures halted the pace of conquests during Walid’s era.

But he continued his raids against Byzantine and on other fronts. He conquered the area south of the Caspian Sea that remained out of reach for former caliphs despite their annexation of large territories. He also captured a few eastern parts of the Byzantine Empire, but his efforts to siege Constantinople failed in 717 and 718.

Umar ibn Abdul Aziz

Umar ibn Abdul Aziz was the son of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan’s brother Abdul Aziz. His reign was also short-lived (717-720), but he is renowned for his simple and religious lifestyle.

Instead of conquering new areas, he made efforts to spread Islam in the already conquered areas and also to foreign nations. Most of the people in Iran and Egypt embraced Islam during his Caliphate. He also invited the rulers of China and Tibet to accept Islam. The official collection of Hadith (sayings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)) started during his era.

He lifted the largely unsuccessful Siege of Constantinople in 718 and halted the unnecessary campaign in Central Asia. But the Caliphate expanded to many areas in Spain during his tenure. He also suppressed the revolt of Kharijites in Iraq successfully.

He abolished drinking, implemented a dress code, and expanded the social welfare programs of his predecessors. He terminated unlawful and unethical favors for government officials and urged them to listen to and resolve public complaints. These and other reforms made him an exemplary caliph in the Umayyad dynasty.

Yazid ibn Abdul Malik

Yazid ibn Abdul Malik (or Yazid II) ruled the Umayyad Caliphate from 620 to 624 AD. He is known for the construction of a large number of desert palaces in modern-day Jordan and other parts of Bilad al-Sham.

He faced a rebellion from former Umayyad governor Yazid ibn al-Muhallab and his Yamani tribe but suppressed it mercilessly. But this generated hatred among the Yemeni faction, and they turned towards the Abbasids during their successful revolt against Umayyad in their last years. A successful military event during his era was the capture of Balanjar, the capital of Khazar Khaganate of the North Caucasus.

He reimposed the tax on non-Arab Muslims, which Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz previously abandoned to support non-Arabs to accept Islam. He also issued a controversial Iconoclastic Edict removing all icons from Christian Churches within the Caliphate.

Hisham ibn Abdul Malik

Hisham was the last of the 4 Caliph sons of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan. His 19 years of rule (724-743) strengthened the grip of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Hisham was religiously conservative and reintroduced the Shariah-based measures of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz. He also facilitated education by building new schools and translating scientific and literary masterpieces into Arabic.

He successfully suppressed revolts by Kharijites (in The Maghrib) and Zayd ibn Ali (in Kufa). He also resolved internal conflicts in Spain and continued the advances of Muslims. However, the defeat in the Battle of Tours in 732 halted these advances and marked the limit of Muslim conquest in the Iberian Peninsula.

Hisham faced a few setbacks in the Caucasus and Central Asia but reasserted his control over Sind by defeating the Hindu rebellion. He also conquered some areas from the Byzantine Empire.

Third Fitna

Hisham proved to be the last capable Umayyad ruler. His successor, Walid II, was more inclined towards worldly pleasures and incompetent. Yazid ibn Walid I assassinated him and became Caliph. Yazid died only after six months and appointed his brother Ibrahim as his successor. But his succession was rejected by Marwan ibn Muhammad (nephew of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan).

Marwan took the throne in 744 without bloodshed. He faced rebellions from Kharijite and Abbasids in Iran and Iraq, Coptic Christians in Egypt, and even internal confrontation within Umayyad stronghold Syria. He managed to defeat the Kharijites and internal rebellions. But opposition from Abbasids proved disastrous. Marwan faced defeat in the final Battle of Zab, and the Abbasids later assassinated him in Egypt. His death marked the end of the Umayyad Caliphate.

It followed the large-scale assassination of Umayyad princes and other nobles related to the Umayyad dynasty. But an able prince, Abdul Rahman I, escaped to Hispania and founded the Emirate of Cordoba in 756.