Battle of Siffin - The Deadliest Battle of the First Fitna

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Battle of Siffin was the main battle of the First Fitna (First Muslim Civil War). It was fought in 657 between the fourth Rashidun Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib and Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria. The battle remained inconclusive and resulted in the demise of thousands of soldiers from both sides. This battle and its impact played an important role in diminishing Ali’s authority as caliph.

Background

The first Rashidun caliph, Abu Bakr, managed to crush the rebellion in the Arabian Peninsula and initiated campaigns against the Persian and Byzantine empires after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). His successor Umar continued his campaigns, resulting in the extermination of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of the Middle Eastern parts of the Byzantine Empire.

The 3rd Caliph Usman continued the same policy during his initial six years of caliphate. But then a revolt emerged in Iraq and Egypt against Usman, resulting in his martyrdom and the appointment of Ali as the 4th and last Rashidun Caliph. However, many prominent companions rejected Ali’s caliphate due to the presence of Usman’s killers in his camp. This resulted in Ali’s battles against the proponents of those demanding justice for Usman’s martyrdom.

The first battle (Battle of Camel) was fought against the Prophet’s wife Ayesha (RA) who was accompanied by people from Hejaz (mainly Makkah and Madinah) including many prominent companions. Ali achieved an easy victory in this battle. But the main battle during the First Fitna was against Usman’s cousin and governor of Syria Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan.

Preparation for the battle

After his success in the Battle of Camel, Ali sent a message to Muawiya and demanded to pledge alliance. But Muawiya refused to comply before the punishment of the killers of his cousin Usman. Ali decided to confront Muawiya. He took a large army (between 80,000 and 90,000 men) from his stronghold Iraq and marched toward Syria. The two armies met at the plain of Siffin (in today’s Syria). Muawiya had gathered 120,000 men.

The Battle

None of the two forces was eager to start the battle. The two armies remained encamped for more than three months to find a peaceful solution. However, the negotiations remained unsuccessful, and the two armies met at full strength on the battleground.

The battle lasted for three days. Thousands of men from both sides perished in the bloody battle. Muawiya’s commander Amr bin al-As tried to breach the defenses of Ali and reach him. The counterattack against Muawiya was made by Ali’s commander Malik ibn al-Ashtar.

Members from both sides were worried that the battle would annihilate both armies if it continued for one more day. So they decided to arbitrate according to the book of Allah (al-Quran). Ali was reluctant to accept the offer as he considered him closer to victory. But most of his men supported ending the bloodshed which forced him to agree to the arbitration. According to an estimate, more than 60,000 soldiers from both sides died during the battle.

The Arbitration

Amr ibn Al-As and Abu Musa Al-Ashari were appointed arbitrators by the people of Syria and Iraq respectively. Both arbitrators discussed the matter for several days and then decided to remove both Ali and Muawiya from their positions and allow Muslims to elect a new caliph. Ali rejected the decision and started preparing for a final battle.

Emergence of Kharijite

A group of people in Ali’s camp (considered to be the killers of Usman) became so furious with arbitration by men that they openly disobeyed Ali and claimed that arbitration only belonged to the book of Allah. They left Ali and formed their faction. The separation and violence by these people forced Ali to abandon his campaign against Muawiya. Ali defeated the Kharijites in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658 but these divisions had already weakened Ali.

Division of the Caliphate

Muawiya took advantage of this situation and Amr bin al-As captured Egypt from Ali’s governor. Now the caliphate was effectively divided into two parts. The eastern part (the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, and Iran) was under the caliphate of Ali while the western areas (Syria and Egypt) were controlled by Muawiya.

Importance of the Battle of Siffin

The Battle of Siffin was not only a major battle during the First Fitna but also an important battle in Islamic history.

  • The Battle of Siffin resulted in the emergence of the Kharijites. This anarchist group never accepted the rule of any caliph and created bloodshed and violence whenever possible. These people continued their activities for around two centuries.
  • The Battle of Siffin weakened Ali’s authority miserably. He was ready to initiate another battle against Muawiya after the failure of arbitration but had to abandon his plan due to the hostility of Khawarij. Later, Muawiya formed a separate caliphate in Syria, Egypt, and Yemen.

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